[Prevalence of asthma and risk factors associated: population based study in São Paulo, Southeastern Brazil, 2008-2009]. / Prevalência de asma e fatores associados: estudo de base populacional em São Paulo, SP, 2008-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of asthma and risk factors associated in children and adolescents. METHODS: Population-based cross-sectional study with 1,185 female and male children and adolescents carried out in the city of São Paulo, Southeastern Brazil, from 2008 to 2009. Data were collected through home interviews. Respondents were selected from two-stage (census tract, household) cluster random sampling stratified by gender and age. Multiple Poisson regression was used in the adjusted analysis between the outcome and socioeconomic, demographic, lifestyle and health condition variables. RESULTS: Of all respondents, 9.1% (95%CI 7.0;11.7) reported asthma. After adjustment, the following variables were found independently associated with asthma: age (0 to 4 years vs. 15 to 19) (PR 3.18, 95%CI 1.20;8.42); age (5 to 9 years vs. 15 to 19) (PR 6.37, 95%CI 2.64;15.39); age (10 to 14 years vs. 15 to 19) (PR 4.51, 95%CI 1.95;10.40); allergy (yes vs. no) (PR 2.22, 95%CI 1.24;4.00); rhinitis (yes vs. no) (PR 2.13, 95%CI 1.22;3.73); health conditions in the 15 days preceding the interview (yes vs. no) (PR 1.96, 95%CI 1.23;3.11); number of rooms in the household (1 to 3 vs. 4 and more) (PR 1.67, 95%CI 1.05;2.66); and skin color (black and mixed vs. white) (PR 2.00, 95%CI 1.14;3.49). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed the importance of factors associated with asthma including rhinitis and allergy; age between 5 to 9 years old; black and mixed skin color; and household with few rooms. Frequent health problems are seen as a common consequence of asthma.

Prevalência de asma e fatores associados: estudo de base populacional em São Paulo, SP, 2008-2009 / Prevalence of asthma and risk factors associated: population based study in São Paulo, Southeastern Brazil, 2008-2009 / Prevalencia de asma y factores asociados: estudio de base poblacional en Sao Paulo, Sudeste de Brasil, 2008-2009

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de asma em crianças e adolescentes e identificar fatores associados. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal de base populacional com 1.185 crianças e adolescentes de ambos os sexos de São Paulo, SP, de 2008 a 2009. As informações foram coletadas por meio de entrevistas domiciliares e os participantes foram selecionados a partir de amostragem probabilística, estratificada por sexo e idade, e por conglomerados em dois estágios (setores censitários e domicílios). Foi realizada regressão múltipla de Poisson na análise ajustada entre o desfecho e variáveis sociodemográficas, econômicas, estilo de vida e condições de saúde. RESULTADOS: Dos entrevistados, 9,1% (IC95% 7,0;11,7) referiram asma. Após análise ajustada, identificaram-se os seguintes fatores independentemente associados ao agravo: idade (zero a quatro anos/15 a 19) RP = 3,18 (IC95% 1,20;8,42), idade (cinco a nove anos/15 a 19) RP = 6,37 (IC95% 2,64;15,39), idade (10 a 14 anos/15 a 19) RP = 4,51 (IC95% 1,95;10,40), alergia (sim/não) RP = 2,22 (IC95% 1,24;4,00), rinite (sim/não) RP = 2,13 (IC95% 1,22;3,73), problemas de saúde nos 15 dias prévios à entrevista (sim/não) RP = 1,96 (IC95% 1,23;3,11), número de cômodos no domicílio (1 a 3/4 e mais) RP = 1,67 (IC95% 1,05;2,66), e cor da pele (preta e parda/branca) RP = 2,00 (IC95% 1,14;3,49). CONCLUSÕES: Os achados do presente estudo apontam a importância da asma associada à presença de rinite e alergia, idade entre cinco e nove anos, cor da pele preta e parda e moradia com menor número de cômodos. Os frequentes problemas de saúde podem ser considerados consequência dessa doença.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of asthma and risk factors associated in children and adolescents. METHODS: Population-based cross-sectional study with 1,185 female and male children and adolescents carried out in the city of São Paulo, Southeastern Brazil, from 2008 to 2009. Data were collected through home interviews. Respondents were selected from two-stage (census tract, household) cluster random sampling stratified by gender and age. Multiple Poisson regression was used in the adjusted analysis between the outcome and socioeconomic, demographic, lifestyle and health condition variables. RESULTS: Of all respondents, 9.1% (95%CI 7.0;11.7) reported asthma. After adjustment, the following variables were found independently associated with asthma: age (0 to 4 years vs. 15 to 19) (PR 3.18, 95%CI 1.20;8.42); age (5 to 9 years vs. 15 to 19) (PR 6.37, 95%CI 2.64;15.39); age (10 to 14 years vs. 15 to 19) (PR 4.51, 95%CI 1.95;10.40); allergy (yes vs. no) (PR 2.22, 95%CI 1.24;4.00); rhinitis (yes vs. no) (PR 2.13, 95%CI 1.22;3.73); health conditions in the 15 days preceding the interview (yes vs. no) (PR 1.96, 95%CI 1.23;3.11); number of rooms in the household (1 to 3 vs. 4 and more) (PR 1.67, 95%CI 1.05;2.66); and skin color (black and mixed vs. white) (PR 2.00, 95%CI 1.14;3.49). CONCLUSIONS: This study showed the importance of factors associated with asthma including rhinitis and allergy; age between 5 to 9 years old; black and mixed skin color; and household with few rooms. Frequent health problems are seen as a common consequence of asthma.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia de asma en niños y adolescentes e identificar factores asociados. MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal de base poblacional con 1.185 niños y adolescentes de ambos sexos de Sao Paulo, Sudeste de Brasil, de 2008 a 2009. Las informaciones fueron colectadas por medio de entrevistas domiciliares y los participantes fueron seleccionados a partir de muestreo probabilístico, estratificado por sexo y edad, y por conglomerados en dos fases (sectores censitarios y domicilios). Se realizó regresión múltiple de Poisson en el análisis ajustado entre el resultado y las variables sociodemográficas, económicas, estilo de vida y condiciones de salud. RESULTADOS: De los entrevistados, 9,1% (IC95% 7,0;11,7) refirieron asma. Posterior al análisis ajustado, se identificaron los siguientes factores independientemente asociados al agravio: edad (cero a cuatro años/15 a 19) RP = 3,18 (IC95% 1,20;8,42), edad (cinco a nueve años/15 a 19) RP = 6,37 (IC95% 2,64;15,39), edad (10 a 14 años/15 a 19) RP = 4,51 (IC95% 1,95;10,40), alergia (si/no) RP = 2,22 (IC95% 1,24;4,00), rinitis (si/no) RP = 2,13 (IC95% 1,22;3,73), problemas de salud en los 15 días previos a la entrevista (si/no) RP = 1,96 (IC95% 1,23;3,11), número de cuartos en el domicilio (1 a 3/4 y más) RP = 1,67 (IC95% 1,05;2,66), y color de la piel (negra y parda/blanca) RP = 2,00 (IC95% 1,14;3,49). CONCLUSIONES: Los resultados del presente estudio señalan la importancia del asma asociada a la presencia de rinitis y alergia, edad entre cinco y nueve años, color de la piel negra y parda, y a la vivienda con menor número de cuartos. Los frecuentes problemas de salud pueden ser considerados consecuencia de esta enfermedad.

Late entry into HIV care: lessons from Brazil, 2003 to 2006.

BACKGROUND: To ascertain the population rates and proportion of late entry into HIV care, as well as to determine whether such late entry correlates with individual and contextual factors. METHODS: Data for the 2003-2006 period in Brazil were obtained from public health records. A case of late entry into HIV care was defined as one in which HIV infection was diagnosed at death, one in which HIV infection was diagnosed after the condition of the patient had already been aggravated by AIDS-related diseases, or one in which the CD4(+) T-cell count was ≤ 200 cells/mm(3) at the time of diagnosis. We also considered extended and stricter sets of criteria (in which the final criterion was ≤ 350 cells/mm(3) and ≤ 100 cells/mm(3), respectively). The estimated risk ratio was used in assessing the effects of correlates, and the population rates (per 100,000 population) were calculated on an annual basis. RESULTS: Records of 115,369 HIV-infected adults were retrieved, and 43.6% (50,358) met the standard criteria for late entry into care. Diagnosis at death accounted for 29% (14,457) of these cases. Late entry into HIV care (standard criterion) was associated with certain individual factors (sex, age, and transmission category) and contextual factors (region with less economic development/increasing incidence of AIDS, lower local HIV testing rate, and smaller municipal population). Use of the extended criteria increased the proportion of late entry by 34% but did not substantially alter the correlations analyzed. The overall population rate of late entry was 9.9/100,000 population, specific rates being highest for individuals in the 30-59 year age bracket, for men, and for individuals living in regions with greater economic development/higher HIV testing rates, collectively accounting for more than half of the cases observed. CONCLUSIONS: Although the high proportion of late entry might contribute to spreading the AIDS epidemic in less developed regions, most cases occurred in large cities, with broader availability of HIV testing, and in economically developed regions.

Doenças respiratórias e fatores associados: estudo de base populacional em São Paulo, 2008-2009 / Respiratory diseases and associated factors: population-based study in São Paulo, 2008-2009 / Enfermedades respiratorias y factores asociados: estudio de base poblacional en Sao Paulo (Sureste de Brasil), 2008-2009

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência de bronquite aguda, rinite e sinusite em crianças e adolescentes e identificar fatores associados. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal, de base populacional. Foi realizado inquérito domiciliar com 1.185 crianças e adolescentes de São Paulo, SP, de 2008 a 2009. Os participantes foram selecionados a partir de amostragem probabilística, estratificada por sexo e idade e por conglomerados em dois estágios. Para análise ajustada foi realizada regressão múltipla de Poisson. RESULTADOS: Dos entrevistados, 7,3 por cento referiram bronquite aguda, 22,6 por cento rinite e 15,3 por cento sinusite. Após análise ajustada, associaram-se à bronquite aguda auto-referida: idade de zero a quatro anos (RP = 17,86; IC95 por cento: 3,65;90,91), cinco a nove anos (RP = 37,04; IC95 por cento: 8,13;166,67), dez a 14 anos (RP = 20,83; IC95 por cento: 4,93;90,91), referir ter alergia (RP = 3,12; IC95 por cento: 1,70;5,73), cor da pele preta/parda (RP = 2,29; IC95 por cento: 1,21;4,35) e morar em domicílio com um a três cômodos (RP = 1,85; IC95 por cento: 1,17;2,94); à rinite auto-referida: idade dez a 14 anos (RP = 2,77; IC95 por cento: 1,60;4,78), 15 a 19 anos (RP = 2,58; IC95 por cento: 1,52;4,39), referir ter alergia (RP = 4,32; IC95 por cento: 2,79;6,70), referir ter asma (RP = 2,30; IC95 por cento: 1,30;4,10) e morar em apartamento (RP = 1,70; IC95 por cento: 1,06;2,73); à sinusite auto-referida: idade cinco a nove anos (RP = 2,44; IC95 por cento: 1,09;5,43), dez a 14 anos (RP = 2,99; IC95 por cento: 1,36;6,58), 15 a 19 anos (RP = 3,62; IC95 por cento: 1,68;7,81), referir ter alergia (RP = 2,23; IC95 por cento: 1,41;3,52) e apresentar obesidade (RP = 4,42; IC95 por cento: 1,56;12,50). CONCLUSÕES: As doenças respiratórias foram mais prevalentes em grupos populacionais com características definidas, como grupo etário, doenças auto-referidas, tipo de moradia e obesidade.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of acute bronchitis, rhinitis, and sinusitis among children and adolescents and identify associated factors. METHODS: This is a population-based, cross-sectional study. A household survey was conducted with 1,185 children and adolescents from the city of São Paulo (Southeastern Brazil), from 2008 to 2009. The participants were selected by means of probability sampling, stratified by sex and age, and by two-stage cluster sampling. For the adjusted analysis, multiple Poisson regression was used. RESULTS: Of the respondents, 7.3 percent reported acute bronchitis, 22.6 percent rhinitis and15.3 percent sinusitis. After the adjusted analysis, the following characteristics were associated with self;reported acute bronchitis: age 0 to 4 years (PR=17.86; 95 percentCI: 3.65;90.91), 5 to 9 years (PR=37.04; 95 percentCI: 8.13;166.67), 10 to 14 years (PR=20,83; 95 percentCI: 4.93;90.91), allergy (PR=3.12; 95 percentCI: 1.70;5.73), black and mixed-ethnicity (black and white) skin color (PR=2.29; 95 percentCI: 1.21;4.35), and living in a household with 1 to 3 rooms (PR=1.85; 95 percentCI: 1.17;2.94). As to self-reported rhinitis, the following characteristics were associated: age 10 to 14 years (PR=2.77; 95 percentCI: 1.60;4.78), 15 to 19 years (PR=2.58; 95 percentCI: 1.52;4.39), allergy (PR=4.32; 95 percentCI: 2.79;6.70), asthma (PR=2.30; 95 percentCI: 1.30;4.10) and living in flats (PR=1.70; 95 percentCI: 1.06;2.73). Concerning self-reported sinusitis, the following characteristics were associated: age 5 to 9 years (PR=2.44; 95 percentCI: 1.09;5.43), 10 to 14 years (PR=2.99; 95 percentCI: 1.36;6.58), 15 to 19 years (PR=3.62; 95 percentCI: 1.68;7.81), allergy (PR=2.23 (95 percentCI: 1.41;3.52) and obesity (PR=4.42; 95 percentCI: 1.56;12.50). CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory diseases were more prevalent in population groups with defined characteristics, such as age group, self-reported diseases, type of household and obesity.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia de bronquitis aguda, rinitis y sinusitis en niños y adolescentes e identificar factores asociados. MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal, de base poblacional. Se realizó pesquisa domiciliar con 1.185 niños y adolescentes de Sao Paulo (Sureste de Brasil), de 2008 a 2009. Los participantes fueron seleccionados a partir de muestreo probabilístico, estratificado por sexo y edad y por conglomerados en dos fases. Para análisis ajustado fue realizada regresión múltiple de Poisson. RESULTADOS: De los entrevistados, 7,3 por ciento narraron bronquitis aguda, 22,6 por ciento rinitis y 15,3 por ciento sinusitis. Posterior al análisis ajustado, se asociaron la bronquitis aguda auto-referida: edad de cero a cuatro años (RP=17,86; IC95 por ciento:3,65;90,91), cinco a nueve años (RP=37,04; IC95 por ciento:8,13;166,67), diez a 14 años (RP=20,83; IC95 por ciento: 4,93;90,91), relatar presencia de alergia (RP=3,12; IC95 por ciento: 1,70;5,73), color de la piel negra/parda (RP=2,29; IC95 por ciento: 1,21;4,35) y vivir en domicilio con uno a tres cuartos (RP=1,85; IC95 por ciento:1,17;2,94); a la rinitis auto-referida: edad de diez a 14 años (RP=2,77; IC95 por ciento:1,60;4,78), 15 a 19 años (RP=2,58; IC95 por ciento:1,52;4,39), relatar presencia de alergia (RP=4,32; IC95 por ciento: 2,79;6,70), relatar presencia de asma (RP= 2,30; IC95 por ciento:1,30;4,10) y vivir en apartamento (RP=1,70; IC95 por ciento:1,06;2,73); a la sinusitis auto-referida: edad de cinco a nueve años (RP=2,44; IC95 por ciento: 1,09;5,43), diez a 14 años (RP=2,99; IC95 por ciento: 1,36;6,58), 15 a 19 años (RP=3,62; IC95 por ciento: 1,68;7,81), relatar presencia de alergia (RP=2,23; IC95 por ciento: 1,41;3,52) y presentar obesidad (RP=4,42; IC95 por ciento: 1,56;12,50). CONCLUSIONES: Las enfermedades respiratorias prevalecieron mayormente en grupos poblacionales con características definidas, como grupo de edad, enfermedades auto-referidas, tipo de vivienda y obesidad.

Respiratory diseases and associated factors: population-based study in São Paulo, 2008-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of acute bronchitis, rhinitis, and sinusitis among children and adolescents and identify associated factors. METHODS: This is a population-based, cross-sectional study. A household survey was conducted with 1,185 children and adolescents from the city of São Paulo (Southeastern Brazil), from 2008 to 2009. The participants were selected by means of probability sampling, stratified by sex and age, and by two-stage cluster sampling. For the adjusted analysis, multiple Poisson regression was used. RESULTS: Of the respondents, 7.3% reported acute bronchitis, 22.6% rhinitis and 15.3% sinusitis. After the adjusted analysis, the following characteristics were associated with self;reported acute bronchitis: age 0 to 4 years (PR=17.86; 95%CI: 3.65;90.91), 5 to 9 years (PR=37.04; 95%CI: 8.13;166.67), 10 to 14 years (PR=20,83; 95%CI: 4.93;90.91), allergy (PR=3.12; 95%CI: 1.70;5.73), black and mixed-ethnicity (black and white) skin color (PR=2.29; 95%CI: 1.21;4.35), and living in a household with 1 to 3 rooms (PR=1.85; 95%CI: 1.17;2.94). As to self-reported rhinitis, the following characteristics were associated: age 10 to 14 years (PR=2.77; 95%CI: 1.60;4.78), 15 to 19 years (PR=2.58; 95%CI: 1.52;4.39), allergy (PR=4.32; 95%CI: 2.79;6.70), asthma (PR=2.30; 95%CI: 1.30;4.10) and living in flats (PR=1.70; 95%CI: 1.06;2.73). Concerning self-reported sinusitis, the following characteristics were associated: age 5 to 9 years (PR=2.44; 95%CI: 1.09;5.43), 10 to 14 years (PR=2.99; 95%CI: 1.36;6.58), 15 to 19 years (PR=3.62; 95%CI: 1.68;7.81), allergy (PR=2.23 (95%CI: 1.41;3.52) and obesity (PR=4.42; 95%CI: 1.56;12.50). CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory diseases were more prevalent in population groups with defined characteristics, such as age group, self-reported diseases, type of household and obesity.

Late entry into HIV care: lessons from Brazil, 2003 to 2006

Background: To ascertain the population rates and proportion of late entry into HIV care, as well as to determine whether such late entry correlates with individual and contextual factors. Methods: Data for the 2003­2006 period in Brazil were obtained from public health records. A case of late entry into HIV care was defined as one in which HIV infection was diagnosed at death, one in which HIV infection was diagnosed after the condition of the patient had already been aggravated by AIDS-related diseases, or one in which the CD4+ T-cell count was ≤ 200 cells/mm3 at the time of diagnosis. We also considered extended and stricter sets of criteria (in which the final criterion was ≤ 350 cells/mm3 and ≤ 100 cells/mm3 , respectively). The estimated risk ratio was used in assessing the effects of correlates, and the population rates (per 100,000 population) were calculated on an annual basis. Results: Records of 115,369 HIV-infected adults were retrieved, and 43.6% (50,358) met the standard criteria for late entry into care. Diagnosis at death accounted for 29% (14,457) of these cases. Late entry into HIV care (standard criterion) was associated with certain individual factors (sex, age, and transmission category) and contextual factors (region with less economic development/increasing incidence of AIDS, lower local HIV testing rate, and smaller municipal population). Use of the extended criteria increased the proportion of late entry by 34% but did not substantially alter the correlations analyzed. The overall population rate of late entry was 9.9/100,000 population, specific rates being highest for individuals in the 30­59 year age bracket, for men, and for individuals living in regions with greater economic development/higher HIV testing rates, collectively accounting for more than half of the cases observed. Conclusions: Although the high proportion of late entry might contribute to spreading the AIDS epidemic in less developed regions, most cases occurred in large cities, with broader availability of HIV testing, and in economically developed regions.

Padrão de incorporação de fármacos antiretrovirais pelo sistema público de saúde no Brasil / Patterns of antiretroviral therapy adoption by the Brazilian public health system

OBJETIVO: avaliar o padrão de incorporação de fármacos antiretrovirais pelo Sistema Público de Saúde no Brasil (SUS). MÉTODOS: baseando-se em trabalhos prévios publicados na literatura médica foram propostos três indicadores a serem utilizados na análise da incorporação de fármacos: intervalo conhecimento-incorporação, massa crítica de conhecimento e intervalo validação-incorporação. Utilizando-se as bases de dados do Departamento de Informática do SUS (Datasus) e do Sistema de Controle Logístico de Medicamentos (SICLOM) foram selecionados dois grupos de tecnologias farmacológicas (medicações antiretrovirais e medicações de dispensação em caráter excepcional). RESULTADOS: os medicamentos antiretrovirais analisados foram incorporados de maneira mais precoce que os medicamentos de dispensação em caráter excepcional, tanto no que se refere ao intervalo "conhecimento-incorporação" quanto ao intervalo "validação-incorporação", e apresentam uma menor "massa crítica de conhecimento" para a incorporação. CONCLUSÃO: Os medicamentos antiretrovirais têm sido incorporados de maneira mais rápida, e após a publicação de um menor número de artigos científicos, quando em comparação aos medicamentos de dispensação em caráter excepcional.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present scientific study is to evaluate the patterns of antiretroviral technology adoption by the Brazilian Public Health System (SUS). METHODS: Based on previous articles published in scientific medical literature, three indicators to assess antiretroviral technology adoption by SUS were proposed: knowledge-adoption interval; critical mass of knowledge; and validation-adoption interval. Using the databases from the SUS Department of Information Technology (DATASUS) and from the Brazilian Logistic Center for Medication Control (SICLOM), two pharmaceutical groups were selected (antiretroviral medications and a group of high cost medications). RESULTS: Antiretroviral medications were adopted faster than the high cost medication group when assessed on the basis of "knowledge-adoption" interval and "validation-adoption" interval. Yet, they require a lower "critical mass of knowledge" before adoption. CONCLUSION: Antiretroviral medications have been adopted faster and based on a lower number of scientific medical articles than a selected group of high cost medications.

Pertussis booster vaccine for adolescents and young adults in São Paulo, Brazil / Avaliação de reforços vacinais contra a coqueluche para adolescentes e adultos na cidade de São Paulo / Evaluación de refuerzos vacunales contra la tosferina para adolescentes y adultos en la ciudad de Sao Paulo, Sureste de Brasil

OBJECTIVE: To develop a model to assess different strategies of pertussis booster vaccination in the city of São Paulo. METHODS: A dynamic stationary age-dependent compartmental model with waning immunity was developed. The "Who Acquires Infection from Whom" matrix was used to modeling age-dependent transmission rates. There were tested different strategies including vaccine boosters to the current vaccination schedule and three of them were reported: (i) 35 percent coverage at age 12, or (ii) 70 percent coverage at age 12, and (iii) 35 percent coverage at age 12 and 70 percent coverage at age 20 at the same time. RESULTS: The strategy (i) achieved a 59 percent reduction of pertussis occurrence and a 53 percent reduction in infants while strategy (ii) produced 76 percent and 63 percent reduction and strategy (iii) 62 percent and 54 percent, respectively. CONCLUSION: Pertussis booster vaccination at age 12 proved to be the best strategy among those tested in this study as it achieves the highest overall reduction and the greatest impact among infants who are more susceptible to pertussis complications.

OBJETIVO: Desenvolver um modelo capaz de acessar resultados de diferentes possíveis estratégias de reforço vacinal contra a coqueluche, na cidade de São Paulo. MÉTODOS: O modelo matemático dinâmico proposto é dependente da idade e considerou perda da imunidade vacinal com o avanço da idade. A matriz "who acquire infection from whom" foi utilizada para inserir as diferentes dinâmicas de contatos entre os grupos etários. Diferentes estratégias vacinais foram testadas, acrescentando reforços vacinais ao atual esquema utilizado, e três diferentes estratégias foram reportadas: (i) 35 por cento ou (ii) 70 por cento de cobertura vacinal na idade de 12 anos e (iii) coberturas vacinais de 35 por cento aos 12 anos e 70 por cento aos 20 anos ao mesmo tempo. RESULTADOS: A estratégia (i) produziu redução de 59 por cento nos casos de coqueluche e 53 por cento de redução entre os menores de um ano; a estratégia (ii) alcançou redução de 76 por cento nos casos e de 63 por cento entre os menores de um ano; a estratégia (iii) reduziu em 62 por cento o total de casos e 54 por cento entre os menores de um ano. DISCUSSÃO: Reforço vacinal contra a coqueluche aos 12 anos é a melhor estratégia dentre as testadas, pois gera maior redução de casos em todas as idades e alcança maior impacto entre os menores de um ano, os mais vulneráveis às complicações da coqueluche.

OBJETIVO: Desarrollar un modelo capaz de acceder resultados de diferentes posibles estrategias de refuerzo vacunal contra la tosferina, en la ciudad de Sao Paulo, Sureste de Brasil. MÉTODOS: El modelo matemático dinámico propuesto es dependiente de la edad y consideró pérdida de la inmunidad vacunal con el avance de la edad. La matriz "who acquire infection from whom" fue utilizada para insertar las diferentes dinámicas de contactos entre los grupos de edad. Diferentes estrategias vacunales fueron evaluadas, añadiendo refuerzos vacunales al actual esquema utilizado, e tres diferentes estrategias fueron reportadas: (i) 35 por ciento o (ii) 70 por ciento de cobertura vacunal en la edad de 12 años e (iii) coberturas vacunales de 35 por ciento a los 12 años y 70 por ciento a los 20 años al mismo tiempo. RESULTADOS: La estrategia (i) produjo reducción de 59 por ciento en los casos de tosferina y 53 por ciento de reducción entre los menores de un año; la estrategia (ii) alcanzó reducción de 76 por ciento en los casos y de 63 por ciento entre los menores de un año; la estrategia (iii) redujo en 62 por ciento el total de casos y 54 por ciento entre los menores de un año. DISCUSIÓN: Refuerzo vacunal contra la tosferina a los 12 años es la mejor estrategia entre las evaluadas, pues genera mayor reducción de casos en todas las edades y alcanza mayor impacto entre los menores de un año, los mas vulnerables a las complicaciones de la tosferina.

Pertussis booster vaccine for adolescents and young adults in São Paulo, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a model to assess different strategies of pertussis booster vaccination in the city of São Paulo. METHODS: A dynamic stationary age-dependent compartmental model with waning immunity was developed. The "Who Acquires Infection from Whom" matrix was used to modeling age-dependent transmission rates. There were tested different strategies including vaccine boosters to the current vaccination schedule and three of them were reported: (i) 35% coverage at age 12, or (ii) 70% coverage at age 12, and (iii) 35% coverage at age 12 and 70% coverage at age 20 at the same time. RESULTS: The strategy (i) achieved a 59% reduction of pertussis occurrence and a 53% reduction in infants while strategy (ii) produced 76% and 63% reduction and strategy (iii) 62% and 54%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Pertussis booster vaccination at age 12 proved to be the best strategy among those tested in this study as it achieves the highest overall reduction and the greatest impact among infants who are more susceptible to pertussis complications.

Ponseti Brasil: a national program to eradicate neglected clubfoot - preliminary results.

BACKGROUND: After hearing about the reproducible and excellent results of the Ponseti method for clubfoot treatment, a group of Brazilian orthopaedic surgeons organized and participated in a standardized national program to teach the Ponseti technique in 21 different cities across Brazil. METHODS: A total of 21 Ponseti symposiums were organized in a standard fashion from January, 2007 to December, 2008. They consisted of a two-day program with lectures, hands-on cast application, and discussion of local clinical cases presented by orthopaedic surgeons. Thirteen Brazilian orthopaedic surgeons, who had been trained by the University of Iowa or centers recognized by them, taught the method. Financial support for travel was provided by an English charity: La Vida (Vital Investment for Developing Aid in Latin America). The physicians who attended the symposiums answered questionnaires before and after the training. RESULTS: About 7% of the 8000 orthopaedic surgeons in Brazil (556 orthopaedic surgeons) were trained. These orthopaedic surgeons stated that they had treated about 4905 babies in the previous year via other methods, including extensive surgery. Seventeen percent of the surgeons did not know about the Ponseti technique at the start of the symposium. Eighty-eight percent reported they felt able to treat children with the Ponseti technique after the symposium. Ninety-four percent of respondents reported that the symposium changed their way of treating clubfoot CONCLUSIONS: These Ponseti symposiums brought about an exchange of medical information and empowered the participants. This program is a good educational tool which can be used in eradicating neglected clubfoot in Brazil.

Doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica e fatores associados em São Paulo, SP, 2008-2009 / Prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and risk factors in São Paulo, Brazil, 2008-2009 / Enfermedad Pulmonar Obstructiva Crónica y factores asociados en Sao Paulo, Sureste de Brasil, 2008-2009

OBJETIVO: Estimar a prevalência e fatores associados à doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal, de base populacional com 1.441 indivíduos de ambos os sexos e com 40 anos de idade ou mais no município de São Paulo, SP, entre 2008 e 2009. As informações foram coletadas por meio de entrevistas domiciliares e os participantes foram selecionados a partir de amostragem probabilística, estratificada por sexo e idade, e por conglomerados em dois estágios (setores censitários e domicílios). Foi realizada regressão múltipla de Poisson na análise ajustada. RESULTADOS: Dos entrevistados, 4,2 por cento (IC95 por cento 3,1;5,4) referiram doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica. Após análise ajustada, identificaram-se os seguintes fatores independentemente associados ao agravo: número de cigarros fumados na vida (> 1.500/nenhum) RP = 3,85 (IC95 por cento: 1,87;7,94), cansar-se com facilidade (sim/não) RP = 2,61 (IC95 por cento 1,39;4,90), idade (60 a 69 anos/50 a 59 anos) RP = 3,27 (IC95 por cento 1,01;11,24), idade (70 anos e mais/50 a 59 anos) RP = 4,29 (IC95 por cento 1,30;14,29), problemas de saúde nos últimos 15 dias (sim/não) RP = 1,31 (IC95 por cento 1,02;1,77), e atividade física no tempo livre (sim/não) RP = 0,57 (IC95 por cento 0,26;0,97). CONCLUSÕES: A prevalência da doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica é elevada e está associada ao uso do tabaco e idade acima de 60 anos. Os problemas de saúde freqüentes e redução da atividade física no tempo livre podem ser considerados conseqüências dessa doença.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and related risk factors. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional study with 1,441 individuals of both sexes aged 40 years or more was conducted in the city of São Paulo, Brazil, between 2008 and 2009. A two-stage (census tract, household) cluster random sampling stratified by sex and age was used and data was collected through home interviews. Multiple Poisson regression was used in the adjusted analysis. RESULTS: Of all respondents, 4.2 percent (95 percentCI: 3.1;5.4) reported chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. After adjustment the following factors were found independently associated with self-reported chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: number of cigarettes smoked in their lifetime (>1,500 vs. none) (PR=3.85; 95 percentCI: 1.87;7.94); easily fatigued (yes vs. no) (PR=2.61; 95 percentCI: 1.39;4.90); age (60;69 vs. 50;59) (PR 3.27; 95 percentCI: 1.01;11.24); age (70 and over vs. 50;59) (PR 4.29; 95 percentCI: 1.30;11.29); health conditions in the last 15 days (yes vs. no) (PR=1.31; 95 percentCI: 1.02;1.77); leisure-time physical activity (yes vs. no) (PR=0.57; 95 percentCI: 0.26;0.97). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is high in the population studied and is associated with smoking and age over 60. Frequent health conditions and low leisure-time physical activity are a consequence of the disease.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la prevalencia y factores asociados con la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica. MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal, de base poblacional con 1.441 individuos de ambos sexos y con 40 años de edad o más en el municipio de São Paulo, Sureste de Brasil, entre 3008 y 2009. Las informaciones fueron colectadas por medio de entrevistas domiciliares y los participantes fueron seleccionados a partir de muestreo probabilístico estratificado por sexo y edad, y por conglomerados en dos fases (sectores censitarios y domicilios). Se realizó regresión múltiple de Poisson en el análisis ajustado. RESULTADOS: De los entrevistados, 4,2 por ciento (IC95 por ciento 3,1;5,4) mencionaron enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica. Posterior al análisis ajustado, se identificaron los siguientes factores independientemente asociados con el agravio: número de cigarros fumados en la vida (>1500/ninguno) RP=3,85 (IC95 por ciento 1,87;7,94), cansarse con facilidad (si/no) RP=2,61 (IC95 por ciento 1,39;4,90), edad (60 a 69 años/50 a 59 años) RP=3,27 (IC95 por ciento 1,01;11,24), edad (70 años y más/50 a 59 años) RP=4,29 (IC95 por ciento 1,30;14,29), problemas de salud en los últimos 15 días (si/no) RP=1,31 (IC95 por ciento 1,02;1,77) y actividad física en el tiempo de ocio (si/no) RP=0,57 (IC95 por ciento 0,26;0,97). CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia de la enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica es elevada y está asociada al uso del tabaco y edad por encima de 60 años. Los problemas de salud frecuentes y reducción de la actividad física en el tiempo de ocio pueden ser considerados consecuencias de dicha enfermedad.

Prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and risk factors in São Paulo, Brazil, 2008-2009.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and related risk factors. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional study with 1,441 individuals of both sexes aged 40 years or more was conducted in the city of São Paulo, Brazil, between 2008 and 2009. A two-stage (census tract, household) cluster random sampling stratified by sex and age was used and data was collected through home interviews. Multiple Poisson regression was used in the adjusted analysis. RESULTS: Of all respondents, 4.2% (95%CI: 3.1;5.4) reported chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. After adjustment the following factors were found independently associated with self-reported chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: number of cigarettes smoked in their lifetime (>1,500 vs. none) (PR=3.85; 95%CI: 1.87;7.94); easily fatigued (yes vs. no) (PR=2.61; 95%CI: 1.39;4.90); age (60;69 vs. 50;59) (PR 3.27; 95%CI: 1.01;11.24); age (70 and over vs. 50;59) (PR 4.29; 95%CI: 1.30;11.29); health conditions in the last 15 days (yes vs. no) (PR=1.31; 95%CI: 1.02;1.77); leisure-time physical activity (yes vs. no) (PR=0.57; 95%CI: 0.26;0.97). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is high in the population studied and is associated with smoking and age over 60. Frequent health conditions and low leisure-time physical activity are a consequence of the disease.

Índice h de docentes em Saúde Coletiva no Brasil / H-index of Collective Health professors in Brazil / Índice h de docentes en Salud Colectiva en Brasil

OBJETIVO: Estimar valores de referência e função de hierarquia de docentes em Saúde Coletiva do Brasil por meio de análise da distribuição do índice h. MÉTODOS: A partir do portal da Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, 934 docentes foram identificados em 2008, dos quais 819 foram analisados. O índice h de cada docente foi obtido na Web of Science mediante algoritmos de busca com controle para homonímias e alternativas de grafia de nome. Para cada região e para o Brasil como um todo ajustou-se função densidade de probabilidade exponencial aos parâmetros média e taxa de decréscimo por região. Foram identificadas medidas de posição e, com o complemento da função probabilidade acumulada, função de hierarquia entre autores conforme o índice h por região. RESULTADOS: Dos docentes, 29,8 por cento não tinham qualquer registro de citação (h = 0). A média de h para o País foi 3,1, com maior média na região Sul (4,7). A mediana de h para o País foi 2,1, também com maior mediana na Sul (3,2). Para uma padronização de população de autores em cem, os primeiros colocados para o País devem ter h = 16; na estratificação por região, a primeira posição demanda valores mais altos no Nordeste, Sudeste e Sul, sendo nesta última h = 24. CONCLUSÕES: Avaliados pelos índices h da Web of Science, a maioria dos autores em Saúde Coletiva não supera h = 5. Há diferenças entres as regiões, com melhor desempenho para a Sul e valores semelhantes entre Sudeste e Nordeste.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate reference values and the hierarchy function of professors engaged in Collective Health in Brazil by analyzing the distribution of the h-index. METHODS: From the Portal da Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Portal of Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel ), 934 authors were identified in 2008, of whom 819 were analyzed. The h-index of each professor was obtained through the Web of Science using search algorithms controlling for namesakes and alternative spellings of their names. For each Brazilian region and for the country as a whole, we adjusted an exponential probability density function to provide the population parameters and rate of decline by region. Ranking measures were identified using the complement of the cumulative probability function and the hierarchy function among authors according to the h-index by region. RESULTS: Among the professors analyzed, 29.8 percent had no citation record in Web of Science (h=0). The mean h for the country was 3.1, and the region with greatest mean was the southern region (h=4.7). The median h for the country was 3.1, and the greatest median was for the southern region (3.2). Standardizing populations to one hundred, the first rank in the country was h=16, but stratification by region shows that, within the northeastern, southeastern and southern regions, a greater value is necessary for achieving the first rank. In the southern region, the index needed to achieve the first rank was h=24. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the Brazilian Collective Health authors, if assessed on the basis of the Web of Science h-index, did not exceed h=5. Regional differences exist, with the southeastern and northeastern regions being similar and the southern region being outstanding.

OBJETIVO: Estimar valores de referencia y función de jerarquía de docentes en Salud Colectiva de Brasil por medio de análisis de distribución del índice h. MÉTODOS: A partir del Portal de la Coordinación de Perfeccionamiento de Personal de Nivel Superior 934 docentes fueron identificados en 2008, de los cuales 819 fueron analizados. El índice h de cada docente fue obtenido en la Web of Science mediante algoritmos de búsqueda con control para homonimias y alternativas de grafía de nombre. Para cada región y para Brasil como un todo se ajustó función de densidad de probabilidad exponencial a los parámetros promedio y tasa de decrecimiento por región. Fueron identificadas medidas de posición y, con el complemento de la función probabilidad acumulada, función de jerarquía entre autores conforme el índice h por región. RESULTADOS: De los docentes, 29,8 por ciento no tenían registro alguno de citación (h=0). El promedio de h para Brasil fue 3,1, con mayor promedio en la región Sur (4,7). La mediana de h para el país fue 2,1, también con mayor mediana en el Sur (3,2). Para una estandarización de población de autores en cien, los primeros colocados para el país deben tener h=16; en la estratificación por región, la primera posición demanda valores más altos en el Noreste, Sureste y Sur, siendo en ésta última h=24. CONCLUSIONES: Evaluados por los índices h de la Web of Science, la mayoría de los autores en Salud Colectiva no supera h=5. Hay diferencias entre las regiones, con mejor desempeño para el Sur y valores semejantes entre Sureste y Noreste.

H-index of Collective Health professors in Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate reference values and the hierarchy function of professors engaged in Collective Health in Brazil by analyzing the distribution of the h-index. METHODS: From the Portal da Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Portal of Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel ), 934 authors were identified in 2008, of whom 819 were analyzed. The h-index of each professor was obtained through the Web of Science using search algorithms controlling for namesakes and alternative spellings of their names. For each Brazilian region and for the country as a whole, we adjusted an exponential probability density function to provide the population parameters and rate of decline by region. Ranking measures were identified using the complement of the cumulative probability function and the hierarchy function among authors according to the h-index by region. RESULTS: Among the professors analyzed, 29.8% had no citation record in Web of Science (h=0). The mean h for the country was 3.1, and the region with greatest mean was the southern region (h=4.7). The median h for the country was 3.1, and the greatest median was for the southern region (3.2). Standardizing populations to one hundred, the first rank in the country was h=16, but stratification by region shows that, within the northeastern, southeastern and southern regions, a greater value is necessary for achieving the first rank. In the southern region, the index needed to achieve the first rank was h=24. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the Brazilian Collective Health authors, if assessed on the basis of the Web of Science h-index, did not exceed h=5. Regional differences exist, with the southeastern and northeastern regions being similar and the southern region being outstanding.

[Patterns of antiretroviral therapy adoption by the Brazilian public health system]. / Padrão de incorporação de fármacos antiretrovirais pelo sistema público de saúde no Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present scientific study is to evaluate the patterns of antiretroviral technology adoption by the Brazilian Public Health System (SUS). METHODS: Based on previous articles published in scientific medical literature, three indicators to assess antiretroviral technology adoption by SUS were proposed: knowledge-adoption interval; critical mass of knowledge; and validation-adoption interval. Using the databases from the SUS Department of Information Technology (DATASUS) and from the Brazilian Logistic Center for Medication Control (SICLOM), two pharmaceutical groups were selected (antiretroviral medications and a group of high cost medications). RESULTS: Antiretroviral medications were adopted faster than the high cost medication group when assessed on the basis of "knowledge-adoption" interval and "validation-adoption" interval. Yet, they require a lower "critical mass of knowledge" before adoption. CONCLUSION: Antiretroviral medications have been adopted faster and based on a lower number of scientific medical articles than a selected group of high cost medications.

Tooth loss in Brazilian middle-aged adults: multilevel effects.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the link between tooth loss and multilevel factors in a national sample of middle-aged adults in Brazil. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Analyses were based on the 2003 cross-sectional national epidemiological survey of the oral health of the Brazilian population, which covered 13 431 individuals (age 35-44 years). Multistage cluster sampling was used. The dependent variable was tooth loss and the independent variables were classified according to the individual or contextual level. A multilevel negative binomial regression model was adopted. RESULTS: The average tooth loss was 14 (standard deviation 9.5) teeth. Half of the individuals had lost 12 teeth. The contextual variables showed independent effects on tooth loss. It was found that having 9 years or more of schooling was associated with protection against tooth loss (means ratio range 0.68-0.76). Not having visited the dentist and not having visited in the last > or =3 years accounted for increases of 33.5% and 21.3%, respectively, in the risk of tooth loss (P < 0.05). The increase in tooth extraction ratio showed a strong contextual effect on increased risk of tooth loss, besides changing the effect of protective variables. CONCLUSIONS: Tooth loss in middle-aged adults has important associations with social determinants of health. This study points to the importance of the social context as the main cause of oral health injuries suffered by most middle-aged Brazilian adults.

Modelo de gestão para organizações de saúde / Management model for healthcare organizations

Objetivo: Discutir a importância e a necessidade das organizações de saúde terem um modelo de gestão definido, sistêmico e integrado de forma a poder executar seu modelo assistencial com qualidade. Método: Indutivo, usando o modelo de gestão proposto pela Fundação Nacional da Qualidade, caracterizado para a área da saúde como o Prêmio Nacional de Gestão em Saúde, e tendo o Instituto da Catarata do Departamento de Oftalmologia da Universidade Federal de São Paulo, como objeto de pesquisa qualitativa. O trabalho está baseado na experiência de implantação de um modelo de gestão e avaliação do grau de assimilação da mudança promovida em uma clínica oftalmológica. Resultado: Os dados encontrados no Instituto da Catarata não mostraram diferença significante na assimilação do modelo de gestão, pelos diversos grupos dentro do Instituto. Conclusão: É possível a implantação de um modelo de gestão em uma clínica oftalmológica com o objetivo de melhorar seu processo gerencial. O instrumento utilizado permite avaliar o grau de assimilação do modelo. A implantação do modelo pode estar contribuindo para a legitimação interna e institucionalização do processo gerencial do Instituto da Catarata.

[Evaluation of the usefulness of assessing pulmonary aspiration in a gastroesophageal reflux scintigraphy study]. / Análise da utilidade da pesquisa de aspiração pulmonar no exame de cintilografia para a avaliação de refluxo gastroesofágico.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the benefit of routine pulmonary imaging with a five hour delay in gastroesophageal reflux scintigraphy (GERS) to detect pulmonary aspiration. METHODS: 755 cases were analyzed (400 men, 355 women) within a wide range of age (1 month up to 94 years, mean of 5.2 years). Presence of reflux, its frequency, severity, and esophageal extension were investigated. Delayed pulmonary images assessed the presence of radioactivity in the lungs. RESULTS: 307 cases of gastroesophageal reflux were identified, 84 of which with just one episode, 51 with 2 episodes, 45 with 3, 37 with 4, 18 with 5, and 72 with more than 5. Concerning severity of these 307 cases 22 had no evaluation, 179 were mild, 69 intermediate, and 37 severe. Degree of esophageal extension was not recorded for 6 cases; in 46 cases reflux covered the lower third of the esophagus, in 83 cases it reached the central third, in 161 the upper third, and in 11 cases it extended to the mouth. Delayed pulmonary images were available in 753 cases and none showed signs of lung aspiration. CONCLUSIONS: Delayed pulmonary images were negative in all cases regardless of the patients' age or severity of the disease. This is suggestive that either lung aspiration is rare in GERS procedures or delayed pulmonary imaging has a sensitivity that is too low to permit detection.

Análise da utilidade da pesquisa de aspiração pulmonar no exame de cintilografia para a avaliação de refluxo gastroesofágico / Evaluation of the usefulness of assessing pulmonary aspiration in a gastroesophageal reflux scintigraphy study

OBJETIVOS: Avaliar a utilidade da realização rotineira da imagem tardia de campos pulmonares cinco horas após a ingestão do radiofármaco, no exame de cintilografia para pesquisa de refluxo gastroesofágico (PRGE), com a finalidade de detectar a presença de aspiração pulmonar. MÉTODOS: Foram analisados retrospectivamente 755 exames (400 homens, 355 mulheres) com idade média de 5,18 anos (variando de 1 mês até 94,5 anos). Os exames foram analisados segundo a presença de refluxo, sua freqüência, sua intensidade e a altura do esôfago atingida. Avaliou-se também a presença de atividade radioativa em campos pulmonares nas imagens tardias. RESULTADOS: Trezentos e sete exames apresentaram episódios de refluxo gastroesofágico: 84 exames apresentaram um episódio, 51 apresentaram dois, 45 apresentaram três, 37 apresentaram quatro, 18 apresentaram cinco e 72 apresentaram mais do que cinco episódios. Em 179 exames observou-se refluxo de grau discreto, 69 de grau moderado, 37 de grau acentuado e em 22 exames o grau de refluxo não foi registrado. Quarenta e seis exames apresentaram refluxo até o terço inferior do esôfago, 83 até o terço médio, 161 até o terço superior, 11 até a boca e seis exames não tiveram a altura do refluxo registrada. A imagem tardia foi realizada em 753 exames não se observando nenhum episódio de aspiração pulmonar. CONCLUSÃO: A imagem tardia de campos pulmonares na PRGE nunca foi positiva neste grupo de exames, o que pode ser decorrente da raridade de aspiração pulmonar na nossa amostra de pacientes, da baixa sensibilidade do método para detectar aspiração pulmonar ou de ambos os fatores.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the benefit of routine pulmonary imaging with a five hour delay in gastroesophageal reflux scintigraphy (GERS) to detect pulmonary aspiration. METHODS: 755 cases were analyzed (400 men, 355 women) within a wide range of age (1 month up to 94 years, mean of 5.2 years). Presence of reflux, its frequency, severity, and esophageal extension were investigated. Delayed pulmonary images assessed the presence of radioactivity in the lungs. RESULTS: 307 cases of gastroesophageal reflux were identified, 84 of which with just one episode, 51 with 2 episodes, 45 with 3, 37 with 4, 18 with 5, and 72 with more than 5. Concerning severity of these 307 cases 22 had no evaluation, 179 were mild, 69 intermediate, and 37 severe. Degree of esophageal extension was not recorded for 6 cases; in 46 cases reflux covered the lower third of the esophagus, in 83 cases it reached the central third, in 161 the upper third, and in 11 cases it extended to the mouth. Delayed pulmonary images were available in 753 cases and none showed signs of lung aspiration. CONCLUSIONS: Delayed pulmonary images were negative in all cases regardless of the patients' age or severity of the disease. This is suggestive that either lung aspiration is rare in GERS procedures or delayed pulmonary imaging has a sensitivity that is too low to permit detection.